Federal Legislation and Funding

Key Findings and Issues

Transportation Enhancements (TE) funding was established by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA), and continued and expanded by the Transportation Efficiency Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), as a means of supporting non-highway construction oriented projects. Among the 12 eligible areas for TE funding are pedestrian and bicycle facilities, and pedestrian and bicycle safety and education. The SPBP states, however, that few community sidewalk projects are large enough to meet the requirements for eligibility as TEs. The UDOT Enhancements Program recommends TE project awards of between $100,000 and $500,000. The result is that the number of applications for TE funding does not reflect community needs for small projects, such as sidewalks. Eldridge (1998) notes that TE funding allocations in Utah are restricted to construction; TE project planning must be done by local agencies and organizations using their own resources.

Policies, Plans and Actions

Despite the preceding criticisms, UDOT's Enhancement Program has completed a number of pedestrian overpasses, crossing improvements, and sidewalk projects. Other completed projects include pedestrian-bicycle paths and pedestrian tunnels. It is recognized, though, that many viable pedestrian safety improvements do not meet the recommended $100,000 minimum cost. For example, the National Transportation Enhancements Clearinghouse reports that a three-year pedestrian safety campaign in the small state of Rhode Island cost $48,000. A bicycle safety program in the city of Lawrence, Kan., cost $29,000. Only larger projects, such as a statewide bicycle safety campaign in Oregon and a downtown revitalization project in Auburn, Wash., had six-figure costs.

Recommendations

It is recommended that attention be given to innovative funding mechanisms for pedestrian safety improvements. The emphasis should be on finding ways to fund low-cost pedestrian safety projects that do not meet the existing requirements of the TEs. Restrictions also exist among other funding sources, such as UDOT's Safe Sidewalks Program (projects must be along state highways) and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's (HUD's) Community Block Development Grants (projects must benefit persons of low and moderate income and be part of broader community development programs). One approach would be to reduce the minimum cost requirement for TE projects. Another approach would be to develop new funding mechanisms, such as impact fees, improvement districts, private contributions, enhancements based on performance measurement systems, and so forth. (It is recognized that, as of the writing of this document, modification of UDOT's Enhancements Program is on hold pending the year 2003 reauthorization of federal surface transportation funding).

Inventorying Pedestrian Facilities

Key Findings and Issues

Many pedestrian safety problems may be related, in part, to the lack of unsuitable pedestrian facilities. For example, if a pedestrian is hit by a motor vehicle on a highway along which there is no sidewalk, one of the contributing factors may be the lack of a sidewalk. Also, if a pedestrian-vehicle collision occurs at night in a poorly lit or unlit area, one of the contributing factors may be the absence of artificial lighting. It is difficult to discern the contribution of the lack of pedestrian facilities in pedestrian-vehicle crashes. For example, one of the pedestrian actions prior to a crash, as summarized in Dearden and Allred (2000), is "walking in roadway with traffic." Another action is "walking in roadway against traffic." There is no indication, however, of the availability of a sidewalk in these cases. Qin and Ivan (2001), in their model of exposure risk to pedestrians (which can be used to predict pedestrian-vehicle crashes), show that the availability of a sidewalk is a key explanatory variable.

Policies, Plans and Actions

The SPBP suggests that the UDOT Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning Office compile and periodically update a comprehensive inventory. The compilation would include existing pedestrian facilities, areas with sidewalk discontinuity, areas needing new sidewalks, areas needing sidewalk rehabilitation or replacement, and areas needing improved accessibility. The SPBP indicates that some cities were beginning to compile inventories. Also, school districts, as mandated by Utah Code, were involved in identifying safe walk- and bike-to-school routes.

Pedestrian-related indexes, combining multiple effects, have assisted in evaluating, ranking and programming improvements to pedestrian facilities. A Pedestrian Friendliness Index (PFI) has been used by the Mountainlands Association of Governments (MAG) in Utah County to develop pedestrian trip-end ratios for transportation modeling purposes. The Wasatch Front Regional Council (WFRC) has adapted the MAG's trip-end ratios to the regional transportation model for Salt Lake City-Ogden. The PFI rates pedestrian environments on a scale from one (low) to four (high). The index is based on the ratio of the total length of sidewalks to the total length of road within a study area. The index serves to convert raw pedestrian facilities and amenities data into a quantity that can be readily assessed and ranked.

Recommendations

Fundamental Data Needs

To begin any pedestrian-related planning project, a baseline is needed. Five ingredients are essential to establishing a pedestrian facilities inventory:

• The length, capacity and location of pedestrian facilities (by type of facility);
• The conditions of the facilities;
• Lighting along pedestrian facilities, at pedestrian crossings, and along roads that are used by pedestrians;
• The level of usage of pedestrian facilities, possibly combined with an overall assessment of the demand for walk trips; and
• Funding resources and amounts for pedestrian-related projects.

Multiple techniques are available for collecting, entering, storing, and displaying each of the preceding inventory items. For example, pedestrian facility locations can be identified in the field, then locked into a database using a global positioning systems (GPS) device. Alternatively, if a municipality has encoded its street network into a transportation geographical information system (GIS-T), a pedestrian facilities network can be developed as a GIS-T overlay. A number of methods exist for determining the number of pedestrians using a given facility. These include manual counts, recording the number of times that a pedestrian-actuated pushbutton is used, videotaping or remote counting using video technology, and compressible metal plates on the walkway surface. A number of advanced counting methods exist, too, including positioning sensor tools, moving object extraction methods, and automated human head location. The advanced techniques are suggested for locations with very heavy pedestrian volumes.

Condition Data

The conditions of pedestrian facilities should be evaluated, including the surface, lighting, accessibility, cleanliness, capacity, and encroachment of vegetation. Concrete sidewalks are subject to spalling, cracking, sagging and section pop-up (Bowman et al. 1989). These distresses can present tripping hazards, accessibility difficulties for the disabled, and drainage problems. Walkways in extremely poor condition may force the pedestrian to use the road as an alternative. Two of the most challenging situations to the disabled are curbs and pedestrian bridges. Ramps at street-curb interfaces can provide a smooth transition; of course, gutters must be kept clean, and drop-offs that appear following deterioration must be corrected. Pedestrian bridges, stairs and ramps must be kept free of debris and well-lit; bridges must be inspected periodically for evidence of corrosion. Lighting is of primary concern in pedestrian tunnels and in any nighttime walking situation (Zegeer and Zegeer 1988).

Pedestrian-Related Indexes

The use of pedestrian-related indexes may supplement pedestrian facilities inventory data. The PFI has been successfully applied by the MAG in Utah County. A number of indexes have been applied in other jurisdictions. Portland, Ore., in particular, has successfully used the Pedestrian Environment Factor, the Pedestrian Potential Index, and a Deficiency Index. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed a Walkability Index, while additional indices based on pedestrian exposure have been proposed (Knoblauch et al. 1984; Jin et al. 1998). The various inputs to these indices include sidewalk continuity, the ease of street crossings, local street network characteristics, topography, vehicle speeds, roadway widths, traffic volumes, and user ratings. Further study of pedestrian-related indexes is suggested to determine the measures that would be most useful in Utah. For example, an appropriate measure for Utah would need to consider street width (in recognition of Utah's wide roads) and winter maintenance.

Safe Walk-to-School Routes

Technical studies of safe walk-to-school routes should be conducted, with evaluation after implementation. Child pedestrian crashes would be evaluated by time of day and location. Crashes occurring along safe routes to school - particularly those happening during peak school commute periods - might indicate a need for reconsideration of the route. Such evaluations might also be instructive in determining future K-12 school sites.

Local Planning and Community Advocacy

Key Findings and Issues

A survey on the pedestrian and bicycle planning activities of the 24 regional, county and city planning departments in Utah was conducted in April 1998 (Eldridge 1998). At that time, more than half of the departments had at least one separate (Class I) bicycle-pedestrian trail, one-third had set aside funds for specific projects, and seven employed a bicycle-pedestrian trained planner. Formal planning was limited, however, as only two departments had developed a master plan for pedestrian and bicycle facilities. The following year, the Cache MPO Pedestrian/Bicycle Plan indicated that six cities had incorporated plans for pedestrian facilities into either their master plans or recreation plans. One Cache County city had developed a separate bicycle-pedestrian-equestrian plan.

According to the SPBP, the UDOT Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning Office distributed walking and biking questionnaire and comment cards to the public. The cards provided little information on pedestrian needs. The conclusion was that pedestrians lack organizational structure. Hence, there are few coordinated constituencies and few formal statements on pedestrian interests.

Policies, Plans and Actions

The Salt Lake City Transportation Division has made progress in enhancing pedestrian safety over the past few years. For example, the city has installed a number of countdown pedestrian signal timers in the downtown area. At unsignalized crossings, containers of warning flags, to be used by pedestrians, have been set up. A number of neighborhood roads now feature sequences of speed bumps and raised crosswalks. The City's year 2001 budget for pedestrian safety improvements was $150,000. Further study is needed to determine if these enhancements have reduced pedestrian injury and fatality numbers. In a September 2001 speech, Mayor Rocky Anderson claimed that pedestrian fatalities had dropped to nil since the introduction of the new pedestrian safety measures. The extent of involvement of community organizations in pedestrian safety in Utah is not known. A number of non-governmental entities have developed pedestrian safety policies, however. For example, the Utah Parent Teacher Association has established several resolutions regarding school pedestrian safety. Also, campus environments, such as those at the University of Utah and Utah State University, have implemented operating regulations for walkways on university property. The primary objective of these regulations is to ensure pedestrian safety.

Recommendations

Salt Lake City's pedestrian safety improvement efforts are exemplary. Although further study is needed to confirm the effects of the improvements - relative to their cost - it is recommended that other jurisdictions consider making similar efforts. A few of the potential local funding sources for pedestrian-related projects are municipal bonds, development impact funds, and private monies. It is recommended that any municipality having an interest in implementing pedestrian safety improvements pursue innovative funding strategies.

A study of Utah's pedestrian-vehicle crashes confirms that crash rates are highest in urbanized areas. For example, of the 1,468 pedestrian-vehicle crashes occurring in Utah during 1998 and 1999, 1,359 (92.6%) occurred in the six urban counties of Cache, Davis, Salt Lake, Utah, Washington, and Weber (Cottrell et al. 2001). The cities in these counties, therefore, should make pedestrian safety improvements. Although the research did not tabulate pedestrian-vehicle crash totals by city, high intersection crash rates, high corridor crash rates, or high intersection crash totals were observed in Kaysville, Logan, Murray, Ogden, Orem, Provo, Riverdale, Roy, St. George, Salt Lake City, South Salt Lake, Springville, Taylorsville, West Jordan, and West Valley City. Each of these cities should consider comprehensive pedestrian safety improvements and the development of a pedestrian-bicycle plan. If these actions are underway or have been completed, such as in St. George and Salt Lake City, the efforts should be both continued and evaluated.