Pedestrian Safety Education

Key Findings and Issues

Chapman et al. (1982) estimated that 71 percent of 2,157 pedestrian-vehicle crashes were either wholly or partially attributable to the pedestrian. This finding indicates that behavioral modification and safety education are essential. A number of pedestrian behavior studies have been conducted. Chapman et al. (op. cit.) found that children and the elderly exhibited similar street crossing behaviors. For example, these pedestrians tended to focus on the location of their crossings. In contrast, adults tended to emphasize the timing of their crossings. The crossing strategy of adults usually involved a healthy amount of "looking behavior." On the other hand, 39 percent of children did not look before crossing, while 70 percent of pedestrian crash victims over age 60 did not see the oncoming vehicle. In other studies, the following pedestrian behaviors were observed (Human Behavior 1976; Knoblauch et al. 2000; Mueller et al. 1987; Rouphail 1984; Vestrup and Reid 1989; Virkler 1998; Knoblauch et al. 2000):

• 15 percent of 1,300 pedestrians at a signalized crossing crossed against the signal.
• 14.5 percent of 1,914 pedestrians at or near an unsignalized, marked crosswalk either crossed outside of the markings or when the gap between oncoming vehicles was probably too narrow.
• 10 percent of the pedestrians in a study in Brisbane, Australia were "runners" who started to cross during the clearance interval of signals.
• Groups of pedestrians tended to cross together at a convenient location, regardless of the presence of a marked crossing. Members in the "back" of the group tended to rely on those in front for their safety.
• Some studies indicate that pedestrians are less vigilant in marked crosswalks, presuming that they are protected; other studies indicate the opposite effect.
• A psychological study, in which pedestrians were interviewed soon after crossing a street, found that some pedestrians were cautious by nature while others were risky. The risky pedestrians were observed to be somewhat reckless in their crossing strategy.
• In one study, of 5,248 pedestrians hit by motor vehicles in the state of Washington, 3.4 percent of the walkers wearing light and reflective clothing were killed, 5.4 percent of those wearing mixed colors were killed, and 8.2 percent of those wearing dark colors were killed.

Although it is evident that pedestrian safety education would benefit all age groups, pedestrian safety education tends to be targeted at schoolchildren. Ehrlich (1985) estimated that safe street crossing training for children in grades K-3 reduced child pedestrian-vehicle crash rates (for these age groups) by 20 percent. A similar 20 percent reduction was estimated for safety messages aimed at children related to darting out into the street. School crossing guard training appears to be effective. Florida is currently the only state with mandatory training for crossing guards. Forester argues that street crossing training for children is most effective if there is parental involvement, and if the training involves some outdoor practice.

A pedestrian safety program in Halifax, Nova Scotia, was determined to be responsible for a 44 percent reduction in pedestrian-vehicle crashes over an 8-year period. The program included multiple campaigns such as safety lessons in the grade school curriculum, a National Safe Driving Week, monthly "Crosswalk Bulletins," "School's Out" week, and traffic engineering improvements (Kennedy 1984).

Policies, Plans and Actions

The Utah Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Program was initiated in Salt Lake County in 1996. The program's objectives include educating students between ages 5 and 14 on pedestrian safety and increasing driver awareness of children as pedestrians. The UHSO operates the program. Among the program's campaigns are "It's Up to You to Cross Alive," developed in 1999, which teaches children how to cross streets defensively. "Green Ribbon Month," developed in 1998, occurs during September and is implemented by elementary schools. The activities include safety assemblies in schools, and the attachment of green ribbons to signs, cars, people, and crosswalk signs to remind drivers to be alert to children crossing streets.

The Utah Safety Council (USC) provides free brochures and pamphlets on traffic and pedestrian safety. The USC also houses a traffic safety video library. The Utah Technology Transfer (T²) Center also has a safety video library. The videos serve as safety awareness and instructional tools that can be shown in either private or public settings.

The Utah Department of Health, Division of Family Health Services, Child Injury Prevention Program provides pamphlets with the theme: "Is It Safe to Cross Now?" Their educational efforts focus on the physical limitations of children, how parents might teach children to cross safely, and pedestrian safety tips intended for all ages.

The Utah Driver Handbook features a section on pedestrians and joggers. The handbook suggests that pedestrians walk facing traffic, wear light-colored clothes, yield to motor vehicles, use sidewalks, use marked crosswalks, obey pedestrian signals, and look left and right before crossing.

Recommendations

Parental Involvement in Child Pedestrian Safety Training

Several authors recommend that parents receive special training in child pedestrian safety (e.g., Rivara et al. 1989). Research has shown that a significant portion of parents overestimates the abilities of their children to walk safely. The development of a child pedestrian safety program for parents should be considered. Child pedestrian safety education typically focuses on street crossing. Many child pedestrian-vehicle crashes occur, however, when the child darts out midblock. It is evident that safety education should include street-playing behavior in addition to street crossing. The development of a module on street-play safety should be considered.

Elderly Pedestrian Safety Education

Pedestrian safety training for the elderly is needed, particularly to periodically reevaluate cognitive skills and sensory abilities. These tend to deteriorate with age, and the individual needs to adapt to the changes. Studies have shown that the elderly demonstrate a crossing strategy similar to that of children. The finding that 70 percent of pedestrians over age 60 did not see the oncoming vehicle before being hit confirms a reduction in cognitive skills with age. Therefore, some of the fundamentals of street crossing, particularly "looking behavior," may need to be reiterated to the elderly.

Considerations in Pedestrian Safety Education

Based on various authors' assessments of where and why pedestrian-vehicle crashes occur, pedestrian safety training needs to focus on the following: the selection of good places to cross roads, pedestrian visibility (particularly at night), executing proper technique when crossing a road (i.e., looking both ways and being alert), and on taking proper care when in the road (while working or walking along a road with no pedestrian facilities). For example, wearing light or reflective clothing appears to reduce a pedestrian's risk of being killed by a motor vehicle. Further to the preceding recommendations, Chapman et al. (1982) suggest that choosing a time to cross is more important than the location of the crossing. The timing of the crossing results from an assessment of the crossing situation upon approaching the curb, rather than while standing at the curb. Pedestrian safety materials should incorporate these findings.

Pedestrians and Alcohol

In addition to the previous points, pedestrian safety training should emphasize the effect of alcohol on the pedestrian's ability to use good judgment when walking and crossing. Jehle and Cottington (1988) found that intoxicated pedestrians were three to four times more likely to be hit by a motor vehicle than their nonintoxicated counterparts. Curtin et al. (1993) determined that the percentage of pedestrians who had both consumed alcohol and were hit by a motor vehicle was substantially greater than the number of drivers who were under the influence and had hit a pedestrian. Bradbury (1991) found that injury severity among impaired pedestrians was greater than among impaired ones. The portion of struck pedestrians with a high blood alcohol content ranged, in various studies, from 30 percent to 65 percent, although in one study only 6.5 percent had a detectable blood alcohol level (Baker et al. 1974; Brainard et al. 1989; Peng and Bongard 1999; Vestrup and Reid 1989). In all studies, the portion of pedestrian-vehicle crashes in which alcohol may have been a contributing factor was greater on Fridays, Saturdays and at night than at other times. These findings indicate the need for an increased awareness of alcohol consumption as a contributing factor in pedestrian-vehicle crashes.

Pedestrian-Vehicle Crash Statistics and Outcomes

Key Findings and Issues

In 1999, there were 720 pedestrian-vehicle crashes in Utah. Beginning in 1997, reporting criteria excluded crashes occurring on private property. There were 1,137 pedestrian-vehicle crashes in 1996, but the change in reporting criteria invalidates the conclusion that there was a major reduction in pedestrian-related collisions. It is evident, however, that the number of pedestrian-vehicle crashes decreased from 773 in 1997 to 720 in 1999, a reduction of 6.6 percent.

There were 35 pedestrian fatalities resulting from pedestrian-vehicle crashes in 1999. This represented a 40 percent increase over the 25 pedestrian fatalities witnessed in 1993. The portion of pedestrian-vehicle collisions resulting in pedestrian fatalities increased from 2.4 percent in 1993 to 4.9 percent in 1999. The portion of pedestrian-vehicle crashes resulting in pedestrian injuries also increased, from 69 percent in 1993 to 92 percent in 1999. Injuries included those that were incapacitating (33 percent of all pedestrian-vehicle crashes in 1999), "probable" (39 percent), and "possible" (20 percent). "Possible" and "probable" injuries were those that could not be diagnosed at the time of the crash.

Children aged 10 to 14 years were most prone to being hit by a motor vehicle in 1999, with that group comprising 15.2 percent of the pedestrians involved and 15.5 percent of those injured. Children aged 5 to 19 years were involved in 41.3 percent of the pedestrian-vehicle crashes in 1999, and represented 42.9 percent of those injured. Also, in 1999, 26.2 percent of the fatally-injured pedestrians were under age 15, while 14.3 percent were aged 60 or more.

The research team examined 1997-1999 pedestrian-vehicle crash data obtained from the CARS database. A total of 1,996 crashes occurred on federal-aid roads during the three-year period (475 occurred on non-federal aid roads). A total of 117 high-crash sites along federal-aid roads (3 or more pedestrian-vehicle crashes between 1997 and 1999) were identified, with 78 (two-thirds) along state highways. A total of 25 state highway corridors, varying in length from 1.7 to 91.9 miles, experienced nine or more pedestrian-vehicle crashes between 1997 and 1999.

Policies, Plans and Actions

Prior to this study, UDOT's Division of Traffic and Safety performed in-house analysis of the state's pedestrian-vehicle crash data. For example, Cheng (1990) published a study of pedestrian-vehicle crashes occurring in Utah between 1979 and 1987. Also, a five-year assessment of school age pedestrian crashes was issued as a pamphlet in the early 1990s.

Since the early 1990s, the Utah Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (Utah CODES) has been housed at the University of Utah. Utah is one of 27 states participating in CODES, a program originally established by NHTSA to determine the benefits of seat belt and helmet laws. The objective of CODES is to link motor vehicle crash data with health outcomes data for the purpose of guiding research, education, and policy development. Utah CODES produces an annual summary of Utah's motor vehicle crash data; one chapter is devoted to pedestrian incidents. Representative findings from the year 2000 summary include:

• 95.5 percent of the 687 pedestrian-vehicle crashes resulted in an injury to the pedestrian. This figure represents the continuation of a trend toward an increasing portion of pedestrian-vehicle crashes resulting in a pedestrian injury or fatality.
• 56.7 percent of the 30 fatal pedestrian-vehicle crashes occurred between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m., despite the overall low number of pedestrian trips during these hours.
• 31.9 percent of the 656 pedestrian-vehicle crashes in which the pedestrian was injured occurred between 2 p.m. and 6 p.m.
• The number of pedestrian-vehicle crashes in Utah decreased to 687 in 2000, representing an 11.1 percent reduction since 1997.
• The number of pedestrian fatalities in Utah decreased to 33 in 2000, representing the reversal of a trend in which the number had increased from 25 in 1993 to 35 in 1999.
• The total number of pedestrian-vehicle crashes increased substantially from 1999 to 2000 in at least three counties, including Davis (from 48 to 58), Summit (4 to 7) and Tooele (4 to 9).
• The total number of pedestrian-vehicle crashes decreased substantially from 1999 to 2000 in at least four counties, including Cache (from 24 to 18), Utah (127 to 117), Washington (24 to 14), and Weber (76 to 68).
• The number of fatal pedestrian-vehicle crashes in Salt Lake County increased from 14 to 19 between 1999 and 2000. This was the only county to see a significant increase.
• 31.7 percent of the 703 drivers involved in pedestrian-vehicle collisions were between the ages of 15 and 24 (and one driver was under age 15!).
• 49.4 percent of the 785 pedestrians involved in pedestrian-vehicle crashes were under age 20.
• 4.6 percent of the 785 pedestrians involved in pedestrian-vehicle crashes were over age 65, but this age group accounted for 18.2 percent of the fatalities.
• 45.5 percent of the 33 pedestrian fatalities involved a pedestrian crossing a road at a location other than an intersection.

Other findings in the Utah CODES summary are similar to those in Cottrell et al. (2001), although the latter report discusses 1997-1999 data only.

Recommendations

Recurrent Pedestrian-Vehicle Crash Intersections

Seven sites witnessed five or more pedestrian-vehicle crashes between 1997 and 1999. It is suggested that field investigations of these seven sites be conducted. The sites are:

• Washington Boulevard and 30th Street (Ogden)
• State Street and 250 South (Salt Lake City)
• State Street and Exchange Place-350 South (Salt Lake City)
• State Street and 1300 South (Salt Lake City)
• 300 West and 100 South (Salt Lake City)
• Main Street and 400 South (Springville)
• Redwood Road and 4100 South (West Valley City)

Recurrent Pedestrian-Vehicle Crash Corridors

Five state highway corridors are among the top three in the state in terms of either pedestrian-vehicle crashes per mile or pedestrian-vehicle crashes per 100 million vehicle-miles of travel (VMT). It is suggested that field investigations of these five corridors be conducted:

• SR 34: 300 West to I-15 interchange (St. George) - 1.69 miles
• SR 189: East Bay Boulevard to 3700 North (Provo) - 4.69 miles
• SR 203: Country Hills Boulevard to 2100 South (Ogden) - 1.94 miles
• SR 204: 3600 South to 400 South (Ogden) - 4.02 miles
• SR 273: US89 (Farmington) to 500 North (Kaysville) - 2.58 miles

(The research team recognizes that the year 2000 signalization of SR 273 at 300 South in Kaysville may be contributing to improved pedestrian safety at this location and along the SR 273 corridor.)

Monitoring and Evaluation

NHTSA recommends that pedestrian-vehicle crash data be regularly evaluated. Trend analysis is suggested, with consideration of the ages of those involved, the geographical location, the type of road, the type of pedestrian facility, and the severity of the injuries. It is recommended that Utah's pedestrian-vehicle crash data be monitored and studied on an ongoing basis. This need is being fulfilled, in part, by the Utah CODES summaries. Separate efforts are needed, however, to link the crash data with traffic engineering improvements, safety campaigns, and policy implementation. The identification and investigation of sites at which pedestrian-vehicle collisions recur is needed as well. Utah's population growth, changing demographics, trends in the amount of walking, and increases in motor vehicle usage mandate the continuous study of pedestrian safety.